Assessing Effects Of Human Development Activities On Conservation Of Roan Antelopes Of Ruma National Park

Abstract

This study is to be undertaken in Ruma national park, a highly productive but less recognized protected area located to the western side of Kenya. The park is about 120km2 in area situated in the floor of Lambwe valley between Gwasi and Kanyamwa escarpments. This place is the home of locally endangered roan antelopes (Hippotragus equinus) not found in other protected areas in Kenya. This study is designed to investigate the effects of human development activities on conservation of endemic roan antelopes only found this unique place following experienced decline in their populations which has left unviable population of about 50 individuals. It’s majorly focused on ex-urban development activities on the rural area around the park and its contribution to the declining populations of locally critically endangered roan antelope conservation. This park is an important tourist attraction site and holding cultural important sceneries. Methodology to be used in collection of data include in-depth interviews with structured questions to the park management and a combined in-depth interviews and observation carried out along the park fences with interviews randomly administered to surrounding households. The research is aimed at determining major human development activities in and around Ruma National Park Park and their effects on conservation of endangered antelopes. Major causes of decline in roan antelope population may result from human activities in and around the park. Expectations are that there are a number of human activities carried out around and in the park contributing to avoidance behavior by roans making the confined to some small locations in the park. This data will be collected and analyzed through descriptive statistics in form of bar graphs by use of SPSS software.

Introduction

Human development can be understood as the extending freedom and opportunities of humans; real freedom of improving their well-being and having capacity to make choices on what to do, how to live especially in relation to their livelihoods (Alkire 2010). A number of individuals now establishes settlements at the edges of public lands for access to recreational facilities, scenery, and isolation (Knight and Clark, 1998). Animals and people are therefore having frequent contacts along protected areas and this has important implications on animal behavior and thus intensifies human wildlife conflict(Tucker et al.,2018; Dickman, 2010). Human activities around protected areas have increased interactions with wildlife and have shown effect on animal behavior hence intensified conflict (Dickman, 2010; Tucker et al., 2018). Among other activities, establishment of human settlements in regions around wildlife areas is common and endanger wildlife (Ogutu et al., 2012).

As human settlement and population grows, extent of human activity increase and wildlife are therefore forced to share the space (Jones et al., 2018; Venter et al., 2016). Activities by humans like roads and trails inside or around parks pipelines and other linear developments activities fragment and isolate habitats (Baldwin et al., 2004). Human disturbances along roads can have an effect on behavior of wildlife which varies among many species at a given time period (Blumstein et al., 2005). The construction of structures like roads, footpaths in the parks or buildings around the conservation areas and increased existence of humans beyond some threshold will lead to interference of habitats following avoidance behavior shown by most affected wild species (Mclellan and Shackelton, 1988; Cameron et al., 1992; Stevens and Boness, 2003). Interruption of breeding or rearing activities can decrease fecundity and recruitment (Goodrich and Berger, 1994; Linnell et al., 2000, Mullner et al., 2004).

Roan antelopes (Hippotragus equinus) endemic to Africa have been the most widespread type of antelope found throughout savannahs of the continent but currently occurring in small populations (kingdom, 1984). Roans occur mostly in savannah woodlands with specific habitat necessities (Joubert,1976; Schuette,1998). Even though they are classified as of least concern (IUCN,2010), continuity of the current trend may cause them to get threatened as they have disappeared in many parts(Kimanzi and Wanyingi, 2014). Controversial part of it is that the same species were listed as endangered in 1996 and its survival rely majorly on conservation strategies(IUCN,1996).

Roan antelopes( Hippotragus equinus) locally became extinct in Serengeti national park in Tanzania and locally endangered species of antelope in Kruger national park in South Africa (Harrington et al., 1999). Similarly in Kenya roan antelopes got locally extinct in the Maasai mare national reserve (Sinclair and Arcese 1995) and now is locally critically endangered species of antelope in Ruma national park (Kones, 2005). There has been hypothesis that the causes of decline in roan antelope population has been originating from competition for vegetation with zebras and wildebeest and predation from carnivores like lion (Harrington et al., 1999) of which these factors doest apply in Ruma (Kimanzi and Wanyingi, 2014). This study will try to find out if the decline in roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) population results from human activities by determining the effects the activities has on these species.

Literature review

Population trend of roan antelopes

Roan antelopes are locally endangered in Kenya with a remaining population of less than 50 individuals in Ruma which they are endemic to(Kimanzi, et al.,2018). The population coverage have changed over the past 3 decades showing a decreasing trend. From 1989, their population have been below 50 individuals (Harrington et al., 1999) making it non viable and difficulty of recovery to better performing populations (Soule, 1980). Africa wise, roan originally occurred in 34 countries (East, 1999) but currently, remnants are in less than 30 countries (IUCN, 2010) showing that the overall population is declining.

Out of the research done by (McLoughlin and Owen-Smith, 2003; Kroger & Rogers, 2005), they failed to recognize the actual cause of the decline in roan population but still hypothesized that it may result from poaching, disturbances, agricultural activities, habitat deterioration, diseases and competition with other grazers. Poaching has been established by the park over three decades to be one of the causes( Kones;2005; Kimanzi,2012), it also engaged hunting with wild carnivores to be part of the problem by the 1970s(Allsopp,1979)which is no longer practised (Kimanzi et al.,2015)

Demographic patterns and intensity of activities

Growing population should be cautiously handled since land remains constant as population increases (Kideghesho et al., 2006)) Wild animal species tend to adjust their activity patterns with respect to human activities which are diurnal (Gaynor et al., 2018) thus may be nocturnal. For those animals that are wide rangers and behaviorally plastic (those sensitive to external and internal stimuli) the changes may occur in relatively fine-scale spatiotemporal (Liu et al., 2012) and in this case they may seek areas of low human activities during the day and move to human-dominated areas at night (Barnes et al., 2007; Gunn et al., 2014; Adams et al., 2009). (Hansen et al. 2005) assessed various ex-urban developments’ effects on wildlife conservation. The research described the effects this kind of development has on biodiversity whereby it outlined that native living species showed lowered survival along with reproduction close to homes while exotic and some human-adapted native ones were much adapted and tend to increase in number and richness. Wild animals sometimes are unable to avoid humans in space as a result of expanded human activities and especially when they are attracted by anthropogenic resources they instead avoid people in time (Frank et al., 2015; Rasmussen and Macdonald, 2011).

It’s evident in African countries that conflicts due to natural resources are recurrent (Stewart, 2002). Increased structures and human settlement has led to a lack of free space for animal movement (Ndibalema,2010). Disturbance zones are not only associated with buildings but roads too which cause fragmentation and degrade their habitat (Lyon, 1983). (Vogel, 1989) studied and realized that deer avoided development areas, in addition to that the zone of avoidance extended as far as 1km and therefore human activities constitute challenges on wildlife survival(Vial et al.,2011)

Homes on the border of protected lands can draw wild species such as bears from the public lands, causing increased death and reduction in population sizes within the protected areas (Mace and Waller, 2002). These private lands are receiving proper maintenance and thus have better soils, biodiversity and general productivity. These qualities attract wildlife (Hansen et al., 2000).

These species are disturbed by human presence and can only be approached up to a fly distance of nearly 50m with no signs of disturbance, when approached near thick vegetation, park boundary or public roads they appear afraid and scared (Harrington et al.,1999)

The availability of humans and domestic carnivores around conservation areas influences biodiversity. Wild animals display general anti-predator strategies to counter the effect of human activities especially those they had experienced (Pangle and Holekamp, 2010; Stankowich, 2008) Human presence in animal trails or nearby may displace species especially those that are susceptible for instance pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra Americana) retreat further from trails when exposed to recreational activities (Fairbanks and Tullous, 2002). Similarly in elk (Cervus Canadensis), an approach by humans throughout the calving period leads to repeated displacement leading to calf death (Phillips and Alldredge, 2000).

Vegetation and habitat alteration

Human pressure and its negative impact on loss of habitat is common in most counties in Africa (Newmark, 1996; Kideghesho et al., 2006) this increases with an increase in population growth and poverty (Galanti et al.,2006). Avoidance of human disturbances may lead to a reduced suitable quantity of habitat that is available for their survival Eldgard et al.,2012; Gibeau et al.,2002). Quantification of the patches density represents the regional disparity in the availability of each type of cover across the study area (Johnson et al., 2004). Progressive human settlement converts native land to roads/routes of human activity and structures fragmenting the habitat (Soule et al., 1998). For instance, human population and urbanization leads exclusion of fires to protection human property (Coppedge et al., 2001) and this lead to increased vegetation in the region and animal population too. Habitat loss is among the most contributing factors to extinction of species and it’s as a result of settlement and cropland expansion (Stephens et al., 2001; Woodroffe and Donnelly, 2011; Pittiglio et al., 2012)

Conservation strategies

The efforts on conservation have supported wildlife populations in many African countries (Craigie et al., 2010) even tough human developments outside protected areas have promoted increased human activities (Elsen et al.,2008)

One of the major challenges of remnant habitats is that they are available for invasive species colonization; for instance predator animals such as housecats and dogs (Marzluff, 2001). The nonnative intruders (invaders), as well as predators, can lead to reduced capability a habitat to hold native species. (Dickman, 1987) says that richness of native species in the left over habitats increases with the area of habitat; mammals.

Objectives

Main objective

To determine various human development activities in and around Ruma national park and their effects on roan antelopes Hippotragus equinus

Specific objectives

1. To establish various human development activities in and around Ruma national park
2. To determine the effects of identified human development activities on endangered roan antelopes (Hippotragus equinus ) of Ruma national park

Research questions

The study will attempt to address the following questions;

1. What human development activities affect wildlife conservation of Ruma national park?
2. What effects do these human development activities have on endangered roan antelopes (Hippotragus equines)?

Problem statement

Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) has been identified as locally critically endangered antelope endemic to Ruma national park (Kones, 2005) and has shown declining population in Ruman national park from 202 individuals in 1976 to current population of about 45 individuals (Kimanzi and Wanyingi ,2014) making it a serious concern as the population is below viable level genetically( Allssop,1979). Many studies have been conducted to come up with possible cause of this decline and mitigate it, but the actual source is not yet understood (Wilson and Hirst, 1977; Harrington et al., 1999). Therefore there is need to establish if human development activities contribute to the population decline in roan antelopes endemic to Ruma national park and they effects they possibly have.

Justification

Activities involved in human development have grown more harmful to wildlife survival as biodiversity is now at faster rate of exploitation than before (Turner et al., 1990). This makes protected areas meant to conserve large scale biodiversity to increasingly face challenges (Wearing and Neil, 1999; Suich, 2008). Several factors inapplicable to the Ruma national park situation of Hippotragus equinus have been hypothesized to cause the decline in roan antelope population (Harrington et al., 1999), it was thought that the decline may be caused by competition for food by other herbivores, poaching and /predation. It’s thus of value establishing if human development activities in and around protected this protected area can be the cause. This is by identifying various human development activities in this protected area having impact on the park. Since there has been recorded declines in the population of these species of antelopes (Kimanzi and Wanyingi, 2014) having none viable population; less than 50 showing chances of lack of future for the population (Allsopp, 1979), establishing effects these human development activities in and around the park is of use to be able to know if they may be potential causes of the population decline. The study would therefore be a useful source of information for the conservation of these locally endangered species endemic to Ruma national park.

Methodology

Study area

(Figure 1)

The study will be carried out in Ruma national park located on the west part of Kenya. It occurs in a valley found between Gwasi hills to the west and Kanyamwa escarpments to the east lying in flat floor of seasonal Lambwe River. The park’s climate is humid with long rains falling in April- June and short rains in October –December and altitude of 1200-1600m above sea level (KWS, 2019). This park is about 120km2 in area and is made up of dominantly savannah grassland as well as woodland with spreading thickets of acacia and bushes (Waweru et al., 1995). The park was mainly designed to protect and conserve endemic roan antelopes threatened and not available elsewhere in Kenyan protected areas (KWS, 2006).

(Figure 1)

Materials

The material required for this study includes notebook, pen, pencil and rubber (for sketch if any and is relevant to the study) and a garget to take pictures.

Data collection

This research majorly involves qualitative data. The methods involved in data collection include; in-depth interviews and direct observations.

To establish various human development activities in Ruma national park

The data will be collected through the administration of in-depth interview questions (appendix 4) which will go hand in hand with direct observations. The observation will be made along the park fences and existing public paths and road inside and along the park fence. Along the fences, a line transect will be established where observations on human development activities will be made at every 1km intervals after which a left turn will be made and interview questions administered to two consecutive households and then skip two households and interview the next two households then back to the transect for observation. Pictures will be taken to support the observations made. The study will interview approximately 30-35 households surrounding the park and it will balance the park sides such that east, west and either south or north included in the survey in the duration of one week.

Effects of identified human activities on endangered roan antelopes of Ruma national park

The data will be collected from individuals within the park management that is, the wardens, rangers, researchers, veterinary officers and any other person with close association with animals in the park. The interview (appendix 4) will consist of structured questions which will be presented to cover a cross-section of individuals working in the park management randomly selected with respect to position they hold ranging from subordinates to the warden of the park. The questions will be administered to the targeted respondents at around tea break and lunch hour when most of the individuals are free to respond and it will be carried out on daily basis for 3 days ensuring that a considerable section of the targeted individuals are reached. It targets between 10-15 respondents. An audio record of the interview will be taken for easy retrieval of the conversation during recording. All the responses will be noted down with respect to individual views.

Study design

The study design that will be employed will be purpoful and random design. It will entail structured questions presented inform of in-depth interviews to the key informants in the park ranging from junior to senior workers like warden, rangers, veterinary officers among others purposefully selected. The other phase of data will be collected from observations combined with in-depth interview questions randomly presented to households around the park.

Data analysis

The data will be analyzed through descriptive statistics in SPSS software (statistical package for social sciences) version 22. The data will be summarized in form of graphs, pie charts and tables (IBM corp, 2013)

References

1. A.M. Wuver1 and D. K. Attuquayefio2 *2006: The Impact of Human Activities on Biodiversity Conservation in a Coastal Wetland in Ghana; https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wajae/article/viewFile/45690/29169
2. Chris J. Johnson, Mark S. Boyce, Ray L. Case, H. Dean Cluff, Robert J. Gau, Anne Gunn and Robert Mulders (Jul. 2005), Wildlife Monographs, Published by: Wiley on behalf of the Wildlife Society, No. 160, vol. 9(4) pp.107-114, Cumulative Effects of Human Developments on Arctic Wildlife https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3830812.pdf
3. Demeke Datiko Hansilo* and Lemma Tiki, 2017; International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation; Effects of Exurban Development on Biodiversity: Patterns, Mechanisms, and Research Needs Author(s): Andrew J. Hansen, Richard L. Knight, John M. Marzluff, Scott Powell, Kathryn Brown, Patricia H. Gude and Kingsford Jones (Dec 2005) Ecological Applications, Vol. 15, No. 6, pp. 1893-1905 Published by: Wiley on behalf of the Ecological Society of America: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/4543492.pdf
4. David M. Theobald a, *, James R. Miller b, N. Thompson Hobbs a,c ’ (November 1996), Natural Resource Ecology; Estimating the cumulative effects of development on wildlife habitat; Laboratory;http://millerlab.nres.illinois.edu/pdfs/Estimating%20the%20cumulative%20effects%20of%20development%20on%20wildlife%20habitat.pdf
5. Jianguo Liu, Zhiyun Ouyang, William W. Taylor, Richard Groop, Yingchun Tan and Heming Zhang(Dec.,1999) Conservation Biology, Vol. 13, No. 6, pp. 1360-1370; Published by: Wiley for Society for Conservation Biology.A Framework for Evaluating the Effects of Human Factors on Wildlife Habitat: The Case of Giant https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2641959.pdf.
6. Jennifer A. Gill, William J. Sutherland and Andrew R. Watkinson (1996); Journal of applied ecology; A method to quantify the effects of human disturbance on animal populations https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2404948.pdf
7. Johnstone K. Kimanzi and Jennifer N. Wanyingi 2014, article of conference papers in science; the declining endangered roan antelope populations in Kenya https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cpis/2014/908628/#B10
8. Johnstone K. Kimanzi1, Roy A. Sanderson and Stephen P. Rushton (2018) African Journal of ecology; Habitat suitability modelling and implications for management of roan antelopes in Kenya
9. Johnstone K. Kimanzi, Roy A. S Anderson Stephen P. Rushton and Mware J. Mugo(2015)an article on the special distribution of snares in Ruma national park https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/spatial-distribution-of-snares-in-ruma-national-park-kenya-with-implications-for-management-of-the-roan-antelope-hippotragus-equinuslangheldi-and-other-wildlife/815A8C8B5F44913F64A068C57A447D23
10. Kaitlyn M. Gaynor1 , Paola S. Branco2 , Ryan A. Long2 , Dominique D. Gonçalves3,4 ,Petter K. Granli5 and Joyce H. Poole 2018;https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/aje.12552
11. Linda L. Kerley, John M. Goodrich, Dale G. Miquelle, Evgeny N. Smirnov, Howard B. Quigley and Maurice G. Hornocker 2006; Effects of Roads and Human Disturbance on Amur Tigers; Conservation Biology, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb. 2002), pp. 97-108; https://www.jstor.org/stable/3061403?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents
12. https://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI_WP36.pdf
13. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alejandro_Estrada3/publication/226805167_Primate_Conservation_in_South_America_TheHuman_and_Ecological_Dimensions_of_the_Problem/links/54c39e490cf256ed5a91f8dd/Primate-Conservation-in-South-America-TheHuman-and-Ecological-Dimensions-of-the-Problem.pdf
14. Michael Madison Walker 2015; Environmental Politics of Degradation in Mozambique;http://www.conservationandsociety.org/article.asp?issn=0972-4923;year=2015;volume=13;issue=2;spage=129;epage=140;aulast=Walker
15. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge core/content/view/815A8C8B5F44913F64A068C57A447D23/S0030605313000689a.pdf/spatial_distribution_of_snares_in_ruma_national_park_kenya_with_implications_for_management_of_the_roan_antelope_hippotragus_equinus_langheldi_and_other_wildlife.pdf

Work plan

No

Activity

Duration

Start time

End time

1. Pre-visit and planning for data collection-observation & interview on east park side 1 day
2. Phase 1 data collection-observation & interview on east park side 2 days
3. Phase 2 data collection- observation & interview on west park side 2 days
4. Phase 3 data collection- observation & interview on either south/north park side 1 day
5. Phase 3 data collection –interviewing the park management 3 days

Data organization

1 day Table 1 Research budget

No

Item (description)

Amount (kshs)

1

Stationeries:1 exercise book, 1pen pencil, and rubber

300

2

Photocopying, binding and printing

600

3

Other cyber charges

300

4

Transport

1500

5

Rent

1500

6

Contingency

2000

Totals

6200/=

Table 2

Appendices

Appendix 1: Fig 1(Map of Ruma national park)

Appendix 2: Table 1 (The research work plan)

Appendix 3: Table 2 (The research budget)

Appendix 4: Proposed in-depth interview questions

• Name of the respondent …………………………………………………………
• Occupation ………………………………………………………………………
• Gender: Male Female
• Experience: (for park) 0-3 years 4-10 years above 10 years

Questions

Section A (for park)

1. Which are the human development activities that affect wildlife conservation of this park?
2. Which areas of the park do these activities occur?
3. Are you conversant with the roan antelopes? (Show them picture if they may confuse)
4. Which areas of the park are the roan antelopes likely to occur?
5. How do the named human activities affect conservation of roan antelopes in this park?

Section B (for locals)

1. Does your community have problems with the park? If yes, how?
2. Which activities are done by your community around the park causing problems with either animals or park management?
3. Do you know roan antelope? (Show them picture for identification/give local name)
4. Do you always or at times see the animal around this park end?