Criminology Research Project: Hate Crime – Refugees And Asylum Seeker

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Abstract

This research sought out to examine the impact of hate crime on refugees and asylum seekers. Using a theoretical based methodology, the paper reviewed various journals in the UK from the period 2008- 2018 on hate crimes against asylum seekers and refugees. Literature reviewed has shown that hate crime in England and Wales have reached unprecedented levels, and most researchers have associated the motivation for Brexit as derived from the disdain some of the population have for asylum seekers and refugees. There is a widely recognised assumption, propounded by the main media, as well as political parties that refugees and asylum seeker are a burden to the national fiscas. Past experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in their home countries makes political and media pomposity hard for them to approach the police in the case of victimisation due to fear of persecution, narratives which they already experienced prior to coming to UK. The provocative nature of these kinds of pomposity by both the media and political parties which demonise the presence of refugees and asylum seekers in the country, is problematic in addressing the challenges of hate crime because they stir up resentment, as well as legitimise hate crimes against refugees and asylum seekers. While the UK is a member of various conventions on the elimination of racial or religiously motivated discrimination, a lot still has to be done in integrating the various services being offered by different organisations in the support of victims of hate crimes. The fact that most services are provided as piece meals, the combined efforts to fight inequality may prove to be a mammoth task.

Aim

The aim of this research is to examine the impact of hate crime on refugees and asylum seekers.

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Objectives

  1. To examine the extent of hate crime in England and Wales against refugees and asylum seekers.
  2. To investigate what types of hate crimes are committed against refugees and asylum seekers
  3. To determine who are the perpetrators of hate crime refugees and asylum seekers
  4. To assess what support is available to refugees and asylum seekers as victims of hate crime.

Literature Review/Background/Introduction

As conflicts continue to escalate around the world, so is the number of refugees and asylum seekers growing in developed countries particularly the United Kingdom (UK). According to the United Nations High Commissioner for refugees (UNHCR 2014), the year 2013 recorded the highest number of refugees and asylum seekers, with an estimated number of displaced migrants at 51.2 million people globally. In the U.K during the same period, there were about 126 055 refugees and 23 070 cases of asylum seekers making approximately 0.23% of the total population. However, irrespective of their small numbers, in relation to the total population, they have been presented in an unfavourable light as the main cause of UK‘s problems (Abrams, et al., 2016). The rise in popularism, nationalism and recent events in neighbouring New Zealand (Christchurch massacre) where 50 killed by a supremacist has highlighted the ever growing concerns of hate crime. This negative fuelled hate crime against these two groups. According to Chakraborti and Garland (2015), hate crime in England and Wales have reached high levels and most researchers have associated the motivation for Brexit as derived from the hate some of the population have for asylum seekers and refugees (Bianchi, et al 2012; Schweppe, and Walters, 2016). There is a widely recognition assumption, put forward by the main media, as well as political parties that refugees and asylum seekers are a burden to the national economy and furthermore, because of their vulnerability in their country of origins, they can take any type of work, at low wages, which disadvantage earnings and the job security of the indigenous people (Ford and Goodwin 2014). While stories of hate crime continue to dominate Television channels, and newspaper articles, the term hate crime is understood in controversy and despite its use, media and the criminal justice system acknowledge that it is difficult to classify or differentiate between hate crimes and hate incidents (Allen and Blinder, 2013). However, irrespective of the various debates, on how to define hate crime, or hate incidents, this research is adopting the College of Policing, (2014) definition which defines hate crime as any criminal offence which is perceived by the victim or any other person, to be motivated by a hostility or prejudice. On the other hand, a hate incident is referred to as an isolated case of prejudice or victimisation of a certain group of people because of their race, religion or any other factor that show prejudice. Hall (2011); McLaren (2012) observed that there are 5 characteristics (religion, race, transgender, sexual orientation and disability) monitored by the police as possible source of hate crimes, the intensity and level of hate crime experienced by refugees and asylum seekers is dependent on the political climate and the events around the world. For example, during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, as well as the France and Belgium terrorist attacks, the level of hate for Muslims consequently escalates as compared to other groups of asylum seekers and refugees. In this regard, this research seeks to assess the impact hate crimes have on refugees and asylum seekers in England and Wales.

Methods

This paper adopts a literature based research design, with evidence set out in this paper derived entirely from UK. Peer reviewed journals were searched through google scholar, while grey literature based on the works of civil society and public bodies was also searched through google. Key terms used in the search were hate crimes for asylum seekers and refugees.

Practical issues

It is also important to point out to the operational complexities, in both defining and dealing with hate crime, as well as separating asylum seekers and refugees from the broad category of minorities and ethnic groups, who are recognised by government as bonafide citizens of the country but are also treated as refugees or asylum seekers because of their race or religion. However, irrespective of this problem, the researcher made use of journals directly dedicated to issues affecting refugees and asylum seekers in England and Wales. It is also important to note that while many articles have tried to estimate the impact of hate crimes, in the England and Wales, underreporting of cases of hate crimes has been a problem for researchers in trying to estimate the prevalence of the problem. However, it is not to say that previously held statistics are unusable, but they do not accurately capture the extent of the problem at hand.

Ethical issues

The researcher notes that any theoretical based analysis requires the use of other people’s work, thus efforts were made to properly quote the work of various journals used to their authors, and in no way has the researcher claimed the ideas and thoughts of someone else’s work as hers. Furthermore, the use of derogatory words used to call asylum seekers and refugees is in no way a reflection of how the researcher views the two groups of people, but rather it was meant to highlight accurately the position and extent of hate crimes in England and Wales.

Theoretical issues

Various theories have been used in explaining the occurrence and motives behind hate crimes. This paper adopted Perry’s structured theory of doing difference. According to Perry (2001) hate crimes are forms of discrimination against certain groups of people who are thought to be different from the dominant group. In this case, anyone who does not fit the profile of being white, heterosexual, middleclass is usually discriminated upon because they do not fit the dominant profile of people in England and Wales.

Reliability issue

Creswell (2014) recognise that reliability of the research process is enhanced through the quality of information gathered, since they inform the analytical process of the subject matter. In this respect, the researcher used authoritative sources, as well as well-established articles in the research process.

Validity issues

According to David and Sutton (2011) validity refers to the extent to which the research process is free from researcher bias, or manipulation of facts to suit a certain outcome. In this regard, research validity was achieved through the use of a wide range of journals to highlight the magnitude, as well as impact of hate crimes on refugees and asylum seekers in England and Wales. The use of diverse literature sought to bring out the different opinions of various authors on the subject matter.

Findings and analysis

The findings and analysis of the research topic is organised into four broad themes that answer the objectives of the research study, and these themes include the extent of hate crime on refugees and asylum seekers in England and wales; types of hate crimes committed; the perpetrators of hare crime and recourse against hate crimes that asylum seekers and refugees might have.

To examine the extent of hate crime in England and wales against refugees and asylum seekers

According to various researchers it is difficult to accurately put a figure on the cases of hate crime against refugees and asylum seekers in England and Wales (Chakraborti, et al., 2014: Abrams, et al., 2016). This is caused in part, by the complexities of defining hate crimes. However, organisations such as Crime survey for England and Wales have served as reliable reference points in quantifying the extent of hate crimes against refugees and asylum seekers. Furthermore, Office for National statistics (2011) have also provided data on the prevalence of hate crimes in England and Wales. Crown Prosecution Service (2016) observed that hate crimes went up by 22% in Wales alone after terrorist attacks in neighbouring countries, with police cases of hate crime being estimated to be around 3000 for 2016/17, as compared to 2 400 recorded during the previous year. Corcoran et al., (2015) estimated the number of hate incidents to be around 222, 000 each year. However, much of the cases are not reported in the main stream media. Ford and Goodwin (2014) argue that it is important to treat this number with caution, as it may not represent the entirety of hate crimes that happen during the period mentioned, since most victims are still petrified by making contact with police due to past encounters of persecution by law officers in their countries of origin.

To investigate what type of hate crimes are committed against refugees and asylum seekers

Roxwell (2011) states that the intersectionality of hate crimes makes it difficult to classify the most prominent type of hate crimes against asylum seekers and refugees. However, broad generalisations have been made based on data gathered from Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW). Data gathered by CSEW from 2012-2015 shows that 49% of hate crimes committed were of a violent nature (robbery, assault, etc.), while 19% of the total cases recorded were related to criminal damage to property (Schweppe and Walters, 2016). Furthermore broad categorisation can also be made based on the five characteristics that fuel hate crimes, which are (sexual orientation, disability, race, religion and transgender). According to CSEW, (2018) around 80% of cases of hate crimes recorded against asylum seekers and refugees are racial in nature, while sexual orientation accounts for 12%, religion 9%, with disability being 8% and 25 for transgender crimes. However, it is imperative to note that, the occurrence of hate crimes for most refugees and asylum seekers is also dependant on the race, religion of the victims involved. Another strand of literature has shown that there is high prevalence (twice than other racial groups) of hate crimes against Asians that most racial groups, while for religion, Muslims are most likely affected (52% of religious offences) due to the causal association between terrorism and radical Islam (Chakraborti and Garland, 2015).

To determine who are the perpetrators of hate crime against refugees and asylum seekers

According to McLaren (2012) the profile of the perpetrator of hate crime is difficult to decipher. However recent data on recorded cases, as well as those that were prosecuted has shown that 68% of the perpetrators of hate crimes were white and most were men, constituting 80% of the population) Crown Prosecution Services, 2017). CPS data also shows that most hate crimes are committed by the 25-59 age group (70%), while 26% were of the age of 24 and under. Chakraborti et al., (2014) reported that 49% of hate crimes are committed by strangers, with most offences being committed in public places such as parks, streets and public transport subways. The authors also notes that a significant number (43%) of hate crimes are also committed by members known to the victims and these include neighbours, work colleagues, community members, with one third of the victims being victimised within close proximity to their homes.

To assess what support is available to refugees and asylum seekers as victims of hate crime.

The UK does not have a specific law dealing with hate crimes, but it has ratified laws that address the need to eradicate hate crimes, for example, the Convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination. Furthermore, the country enacted the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (CDA) and Equality Act of 2010 which also deal indirectly with hate crimes through the elimination of racially offensive acts. “Support for victims of violence is regional in nature and therefore it is difficult to make generalisations regarding the responsiveness of the police nationally” (Isal, 2012:12 as cited in Allen and Blinder, 2013). However, victims of hate crimes can approach various Non-Governmental Organisations, which have been proven to be effective in addressing hate crimes against asylum seekers and refugees, chief among the Welsh refuge Council, Safe Passage, and Help refugees, among others. However, such support provided by various organisations often exists in silos, with practices on how to support victims of hate crimes being isolated from organisation to organisation.

Discussion

The literature reviewed has showed the magnitude of hate crimes against asylum seekers and refugees in England and Wales is continually rising. However, the number of cases recovered may in way show a conservative view of the problem of hate crimes against asylum seekers and refugees, due to the fact that most cases are underreported, and also the issue of how to define what is a hate crime is still posing serious problems in the prosecution of such offenses (Hall, 2013). Chakraborti and Garland, (2015) states that the situation is compounded by the fact that in most reported cases of hate crimes, the victims have the burden of proving that indeed they have been victimised because of their race, religion or any other factors that may make them suffer prejudices.

Another factor that has an impact on the magnitude and prevalence of hate crime is to deal with the main stream media and political parties in the way they report hate crimes. The role of political parties and media in fuelling hate crime is also well documented, though how they report hate crimes makes it seem like a once off isolated event of madness by perpetrators. Recent events such as Brexit and the Christ church killings in New Zealand have caused polarisation and tension on the population in relation to how refugees and asylum seekers should be treated. While a number of scholars have treated the issue of politics on immigration with caution, it is important to also mention how some political parties (particularly, the United Kingdom, Independence Party (UKIP) have also grew prominence as a result of anti-immigration stance, which has also fuelled hate crimes in areas where the party has won council seats. The demonization of asylum seekers and refugees have not only affected the victims, but it has also created political tensions in the country, with Brexit being a contentious issue on how refugees and asylum seekers are perceived as a threat and burden to the country. Though, the issue of Brexit is out of the confines of this paper, it is also important to acknowledge how such issues have fuelled hate crimes against asylum seekers and refuges, and the impact it has in creating tension within the country.

While the UK is a member of various conventions on the elimination of racial or religiously motivated discrimination, a lot still has to be done in integrating the various services being offered by different organisations in the support of victims of hate crimes. The fact that most services are provided as piece meals, the combined efforts to fight inequality may prove to be a mammoth task. Furthermore in understanding hate crimes, it is also imperative to acknowledge the many forms it can take so that law enforcement agencies know how to deal with it.

5.1 Conclusion

In conclusion, while the magnitude of hate crimes against asylum seekers and refugees is difficult to quantify due to the complexities in defining hate offense, as well as the issue of underreporting by victims due to fear of persecution, the paper has rightly shown that it is a major problem in England and Wales. The common forms of hate crimes perpetrated against asylum seekers and refugees is mostly racially and religiously motivated, with the perpetrators being mainly white males between the age of 25 to 59. Past experiences of refugees and asylum seekers in their home countries makes political and media pomposity hard for them to approach the police in the case of victimisation due to fear of persecution, narratives which they already experienced prior to coming to UK. The provocative nature of these kinds of pomposity by both the media and political parties which demonise the presence of refugees and asylum seekers in the country, is problematic in addressing the challenges of hate crime because they stir up resentment, as well as legitimise hate crimes against refugees and asylum seekers. In this regard, elimination of hate crimes can only be achieved in its totality if the media and political parties stop spreading hate.

References

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  3. Bianchi, M., Buonanno, P., and Pinotti, P. (2012). Do immigrants cause crime? Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(6), 1318-1347.
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