Domestic Violence: Personality Theories

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Domestic violence refers to abuse, intimidation, and physical violence, between two people who are currently or have previously been in an intimate relationship. The perpetrator begins to use violence to control and dominate the victim. Fear, physical harm and/or psychological harm are implications of domestic violence. Domestic violence is a clear violation of one’s basic human rights. Domestic violence is best understood within the gendered segregation in which it occurs. Males are often overrepresented as perpetrators of domestic violence, although when women act they are more likely to kill their partner than someone else (Dearden & Jones, 2008; Wilson & Daly, 1992). Although socio-demographic characteristics, such as offender-victim age disparity (Daly & Wilson, 1988), differing ethnic backgrounds (Trainor & Mihorean, 2001) and social and/or economic disadvantages (Campbell et al., 2003) share commonalities across gender, other factors, such as situational contexts and perpetrator and relationship characteristics differ majorly between genders. Interviews with male perpetrators reveal controlling attitudes, such as jealousy and entitlement, especially in reaction to a relationship breaking down (Dobash et al., 2007; Wallace, 1986; Wilson & Daly, 1993b). Separation is one of the most protruding predictors of domestic violence victimisation among women, with risks decreasing with as length of separation grows (Johnson & Hotton, 2003; Wallace, 1986). It is often long-term violence directed both towards the female partner and family, including children (Browne, 1987; Campbell et al., 2003; Stout, 1993). In contrast, research suggests that a woman kills in self-defence and report they were experiencing anxiety and fear (Browne, 1987; Walker, 1989). With women’s domestic violence perpetration being self-defensive, this explains why men are more at risk of domestic violence victimisation while in intact relationships (Johnson & Hotton, 2003).

Personality theories assist in comprehending the causes of domestic violence and the identifying traits behind perpetrators, where personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of psychophysical systems that determine characteristics or a blend of characteristics that make a person unique (Allport, 1961, p. 28). Personality incorporates multiple factors such as; instinctual drives, unconscious processes, and early childhood influences. People, inclusive of children are hedonistic, driven to seek pleasure, determined by the location of the life-force (Freud, 1920). Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982) proposed a theory of personality based upon biological factors, arguing that an individual inherits a type of nervous system that affects their ability to learn and adapt to the environment. Eysenck used a technique called factor analysis, reducing behaviour to a number of factors which can be grouped together under separate headings, called dimensions. Eysenck (1947) found that behaviour can be represented by two dimensions: Introversion / Extroversion (E); Neuroticism / Stability (N). Eysenck called these second-order personality traits. It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. Domestic violence perpetrators fall into psychoticism, where they lack empathy, are cruel, a loner, aggressive and troublesome. According to Eysenck (1996/1998), conscience is a conditioned response, developed by socialisation to control an individual’s behaviour. Eysenck gives two possible explanations as to why particular individuals do not develop a conscience. First, an accommodating society results in conditioning experiences for conscience to be inadequate and, hence, leading to antisocial behaviour. Second, Eysenck suggests that the wrong experiences are reinforced; therefore, the conditioned response to this reinforcement is also wrong. The Eysenck theory explores all the characteristics of a domestic violence perpetrator, and the explanations behind how specific traits correlate with perpetrators. Where Eysenck acknowledges that behaviours can be represented in two dimensions displays the different ways that different traits resonate with perpetrators. The introversion and extroversion example, some perpetrators lie in the introverted group, being reserved, and those who plans their actions and control their emotions, whereas other perpetrators are a part of the extroverted group as their actions are impulsive and not planned. Each case of domestic violence is different and thus there are different traits to recognise. The neuroticism and stability example create a clearer distinction to identify perpetrators, as someone high in neuroticism is more unstable and prone to overreacting and are difficult to calm down. Predominately domestic violence perpetrators are unstable, and once they are set off it become difficult to deescalate the situation. The Eysenck theory explains domestic violence by acknowledging the characteristics of personality into groups to be able to determine who is and isn’t a threat. However, it does leave a clouded picture with some of the groupings as domestic violence perpetrators differ, and for this reason the idiographic view of every person possessing unique traits and it becoming near impossible to compare two individuals is an accurate way to describe domestic violence perpetrators.

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A longstanding theoretical perspective on Domestic violence is Aker’s social learning theory, this theory argues that experiencing household violence and/or witnessing it particularly during childhood, leads to subsequent domestic violence, whether that means becoming a perpetrator or a victim. Aker’s social learning theory stresses exposure to influential role models who perpetrate and/or experience interpersonal violence within the household that children witness and later imitate. Social learning theory also articulates the significance of the transmission of beliefs, values, and norms favourable to domestic violence. However, social learning theory can also accommodate other common explanations for domestic violence including extrafamilial socialisation, violent masculinity and gender roles, and the role of differential reinforcement. Aker’s social learning theory is clearly a theory of perpetration and makes no claim to account for victimisation. Social learning theory is presumably gender invariant. Although the results are not conclusive, research has found that men and women react differently to violence in the family of origin (Stith et al., 2000). Extending social learning theory, an otherwise gender invariant theory, it is possible that its causal processes do not function identically for men and women with regard to domestic violence victimisation. Social learning theory theorises a processual model whereby differential association exerts both a direct effect on criminal behaviour and a partially mediated or indirect effect via its influence on differential reinforcement, and imitation, which likewise exert direct effects on criminal behaviour. Akers (1998) argued that the model incorporates mutual feedback effects, in which an increase in criminal behaviour also intensifies association with others favourable to crime, which then continues one’s exposure to the other three elements of social learning theory. Extending the social learning causal model to cater physical aggression rather than substance abuse, Cochran and colleagues (2017) demonstrated direct and indirect effects of all social learning variables on violence perpetrated against a domestic partner; domestic violence also exerted feedback effects on the four social learning variables. Criminological theories like social learning theory are advanced unambiguously to account for offending behaviour. Within the context of social learning theory, the likelihood of domestic violence victimisation increases not only as exposure to a violent domestic partner increases, but also as exposure to other victims of domestic violence increases, especially when other victims’ express attitudes that excuse or rationalise the violence perpetrated against them.

In 1990, Gottfredson and Hirschi advanced a ‘general theory of crime,’ a theory that posits that crime and other analogous behaviours can be explained by a lack of self-control that stems from ineffective parenting in early childhood. Gottfredson and Hirschi’s theory has potential to account for differences in experiences of male and female domestic violence perpetrators. The self-control theory further treats emotional reactions as important mediators between opposing experiences and criminal involvement and recognises that these emotions differ based on gender. The amount of self-control that a person acquires in childhood maintains relatively stable throughout life. Characteristics such as social introversion and analogous behaviour such as excessive smoking, alcohol use and illicit sex demonstrate poor self-control. A domestic violence perpetrator is more likely to abuse drugs and alcohol and physically act when under the influence of such. The self-control theory focuses on prevention of crime rather than intervention, “only policies that take effect early in life and have positive impact on families have much chance of reducing crime and delinquency” (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). Early control characteristics in childhood make identifying future perpetrators slightly easier, from attachments to friends, family, job and school, the attachment begins to demonstrate control, the key element behind domestic violence, to have control.

Personality theories, more specifically, those identifying the psychopath theory leave a clouded picture of identifying characteristics of a perpetrator, however does acknowledge some key characteristics to take note of. Aker’s social learning theory focuses on behavioural patterns to understand the movements behind domestic violence and perpetrators. Where the self-control theory is based on one’s childhood, what was witnessed, what they experienced, and parental influence. This theory re-aligns with statistics of those who watch it or experience it growing up, are more likely to either become a victim or a perpetrator as an adult. So, while each of the three identified theories identify characteristics and behaviours of a perpetrator in differing ways, when the three are used together it begins to create a clearer picture of how to understand this crime. Eysenck’s psychological theory focuses on a psychological state, but also narrows down that most mental illnesses can be bought back to a stemming issue of their early childhood, this aligns with Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory that childhood influences are the core for developing self-control. Aker’s social learning theory also runs of psychological theories as it is based on behavioural patterns, acted upon by the aggravated thoughts of the perpetrator.

It becomes clear when Eysenck’s psychological theory, Akers social learning theory, and Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory are used together to explain domestic violence, that the biggest influence on a perpetrator is what they experience or witness as a child. This creates a form of crime prevention rather than intervention, if it is known that children who experience or witness violence, in the family home or elsewhere are more than likely to become a perpetrator or victim of this same violence in the future, than it creates an avenue for law enforcement and medical teams to prevent these crimes from occurring. While it is understood that not every case of domestic violence is reported, nor is every case of violence outside the family home, where a case is reported with children to have be involved, to be have been present, or to have seen the implications of the violence second hand, the child should be referred to a public health psychologist for an assessment. Public health, as many in these critical situations cannot afford the hefty fee to see a specialist. By having the child go for an assessment, it allows the team to understand what kind of trauma the child witnessed, whether the child feels angry or scared, it also allows the specialist to explore behavioural patterns and self-control already emerging whether it is at school or outside. Having a child see a specialist when things like this occur can help shape the child’s view on the situation and the emotion toward what was happened to them, it allows more research into what kind of trauma more readily affects children, by watching their behavioural patterns.

Domestic violence is an extremely prevalent crime in Australia, with 39% over the age of 18 experiencing an incident of physical or sexual violence since the age of 15. Understanding domestic violence can difficult no matter how extensive or simplified the definition is. With the use of the three identified theories, it becomes easier to identify who a perpetrator is, why they might act, and a potential way to prevent the crime from an early age. Eysenck’s psychological theory identifies the mental characteristics that are not always visible from the exterior, but links together with Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory to understand why a perpetrator may become a perpetrator by identifying childhood trauma. This also links together with Aker’s social learning theory of behavioural patterns that may be present in someone with the intent and likelihood of becoming a domestic violence perpetrator. With frighting statistics of domestic violence occurring in Australia, when analysing these theories, one prevention method can be adapted to decrease these statistics. By having all reported cases of children witnessing, experiencing or seeing the implications of violence to be referred a psychologist for an assessment. This allows the psychological state, the behavioural patterns already emerging and the level of self-control to be analysed and therefore either monitor the child or begin to intervene.

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