Ecotourism As Neoliberalisation Of Nature: Case Study Of Sea Turtles In Bali

Introduction

Ecotourism has been hailed as a panacea: a way of seeking conservation and scientific research to preserve vulnerable and delicate ecosystems while at the same time encouraging the growth of rural communities in poor countries [1]. World Tourism Organization (WTO), defines ecotourism as tourism which involves travelling to undisturbed natural areas with the intention of learning, admiring and experiencing the landscape and its wild plants and animals as well as any past or present cultural aspects contained in such areas [2]. Today, there is an uptrend rate where environmental sustainability activities are emphasized over pure holiday ‘experience’ [3] and it is said that it is rising at a steady rate of 5% every year [4]. Many advocates present ecotourism as a method of resolving urgent environmental issues as well to promise optimistic goals of economic growth, efficiency and environmental conservation [16]. This essay critiques these assumptions by showing how there is a large political-economic force at play that drives ecotourism. More specifically, I argue that ecotourism is a form of ‘neoliberalisation of nature’ and deemed these developments as ‘greenwashing’ of the relevant resources and nature for self-profit. In the long run, this would result in a deepening of socio-environmental inequities [16].

Advocates of Ecotourism believe that it brings about several positive impacts on the environment and the economy within the country. One of which is the increase in the economic value of natural untouched areas, providing revenue for these places. Through this, it provides a sustainable way to generate income by creating jobs for the local communities in the area, increasing employment rates in the country [17]. In addition, ecotourism is also an effective vehicle to create awareness on conservation of nature by gaining knowledge on the ecosystem, biodiversity, and wildlife which in turn informs their conservation efforts [18].

However, ecotourism has received many critiques on its true intentions. According to Lederer the “ideal ecotourism scenario is frequently oversimplified and has proven difficult to achieve in practice for a variety of reasons.” For example, it is widely implemented without appropriate procedures or guidelines, this results in unintended detrimental effects on both socioeconomic stability and species conservation. Besides, in recent years many companies have made use of ecotourism as a “greenwashing “marketing strategy to enhance their brand image and improve their revenue, without genuinely helping the environment. Furthermore, the absence of an ecotourism authority results in the lack of knowledge of the true meaning of ecotourism, this causes tourists to be unsure of the authenticity of eco-friendly resorts and activities [19].

“Neoliberalisation of nature”

Neoliberalism is defined as a doctrine: market exchange should serve as a guide for all human actions. It emphasises on free-market competition, instead of the state regulating what the market does, the market regulates itself based on economic laws. Neoliberalisation is a process of reforms and ideological transformations that applies the doctrines of Neoliberalism. The key characteristics of Neoliberalisation is a political project that seeks to enhance conditions for capital accumulation and restoration of the power of economic elites. It also seeks to reduce the role of the state to facilitate and protect the market economy. Hence these characteristics would give rise to privatisation, marketisation, deregulation or regulation. Comment by Esther: Definition of neoliberalism

Firstly, the definition of neoliberalisation of nature is defined to be the treatment of biophysical, material world as a source of capital accumulation. This suggests the commodification of natural resources and putting a price tag on natural landscapes that are not normally priced. According to Marx, the commodity is a complex building of capitalism and the production, distribution, and exchange are driven mainly by profit and economic motives and therefore the commodification of nature is a form of Marxist social production of nature.

According to Castree, the elements of the commodification of nature is Privatisation, Alienability, individuation, Abstraction, Valuation, and Displacement. The commodification of nature involves an increase in privatisation of nature and natural resources, where companies seek to profit from externalities, through the development of new technologies and business ideas that can turn these externalities into revenue [16]. In addition, external nature is directly commodified to solve environmental externalities. One such example of nature as an external environmental commodification is ecotourism.

Ecotourism is a form of “Neoliberalisation of nature”

Ecotourism is regarded as a form of “Neoliberalisation of nature” due to the marketing of non-human nature with a facade of environmental conservation and safeguarding nature but simultaneously marketing its use.[20] As McAffe mentions, ecotourism is a neoliberalism conservation where companies are “selling nature to save it”, ultimately continuing to reinforce exploitative capitalist relations.

Privatisation

Privatisation which is one of the elements of commodification of nature is largely seen in the sector of Ecotourism. Ecotourism involves privatisation of public assets from the state to private companies. In today’s ideological world, privatisation may be interpreted as a public good which emphasises on the profitability rather than the accessibility of these opportunities [24]. According to Rajesh Gopal, Secretary of the Global Tiger Forum, New Deli argued that a private operator would always look for gains from his investment and the ecotourism sector is the easiest bandwagon to jump on for such people. Besides, a private company that tries to sustain conservation efforts would naturally rely on a revenue-generating model to ensure its sustainability and this can only be achieved through large grants from a non-profit organisation or through the notion of ecotourism. Hence, with both methods being heavily result-driven, the ethics of conservation is often compromised [25]. For example, if conservation of this endangered species of tigers is being privatised, it would motivate several tourism companies to put a price tag on tigers and “buy” the conservation rights with their companies’ profits as a priority. This would result in numerous negative impacts on conservation [25].

Limits of Ecotourism as a form of “Neoliberalisation of nature”

While it is argued that ecotourism expands neoliberalisation of nature, it is also important to note the limits to the neoliberalisation of nature. Firstly, nature being passive or inert, it can be uncooperative or ruly as they impose constraints on humans to profit. This may lead to a limitation of capital accumulation. For example, if the turtles which are part of the tourist attraction contracted a disease or infection, this would decrease the profits of the ecotourism sector. However, these consequences are unable to be controlled.

Case study of Sea Turtles in Bali

Since Bali is in the centre of the Coral Triangle, which is a geographical region connecting the Indian and Pacific Ocean, it is known to be one of the world’s leading biodiversity hub with over 500 species of coral reefs as well as the home to many green sea turtles. [5] Therefore, in this paper, I will be using Bali as a case study to portray ecotourism as a form of ‘neoliberalisation of nature’ and how it is detrimental to the environment and society.

In Bali, turtle meat has been regarded as a delicacy as well as playing a central role in religious rituals by the Hindu majority [6]. In Hindu philosophy, turtles symbolise the foundation supporting earth and all its life, and their heads are displayed to symbolise the powerful god Vishnu. [7] Eventually, Hindus have also become accustomed to consuming green turtles as a common food source and a means of survival, rather than solely for religious Hindu ceremony. [8] In addition, apart from being a source of protein, there is a common belief that the consumption of turtle eggs confers sexual vigour [9]. Besides religious practices, Hawksbill turtles were also used in artistic crafts and jewellery production in Bali due to its unique and attractive motif. The Hawksbill turtles’ shell is used to make exotic souvenirs ranging from rings to accessories boxes. It was known that Bali has become one of the suppliers of raw materials for hawksbill carapace used as the raw materials for souvenirs in Yogyakarta, Indonesia [12]. Comment by Esther: ( before ecotourism, how turtles were killed and poached due to cultural reasons antropocene and cultural ecology)

[image: illegal turtle shell trade Bali]

Fig 1. Illegal trade of sea turtle shell products in Tanjung Benoa, Bali. (https://www.turtle-foundation.org/en/illegal-trade-of-sea-turtle-shell-products-in-tanjung-benoa-bali/)

This rise of illegal turtle trade has led to the introduction of political measures and initiatives to curb these activities and conserve sea turtles in Bali. One of which was the implementation of Law No.5 of 1990 on the Protection of Natural Resources and Habitats, where it is illegal to capture, kill, possess, store, move or trade any endangered animal products, either alive or dead. Violation of this policy is punishable by a maximum of 5 years imprisonment and a maximum fine of 100 million rupiahs [13]. In addition to the laws in place, the Bali Sea Turtle Society (BSTS) was also introduced in 2001. BSTS is a charitable organisation that aims to protect sea turtles. They have organised tours that would directly support efforts to save the sea turtles. With the aid of volunteers and local researchers, the sea turtles’ eggs were moved to a fenced hatchery which was under 24-hour surveillance and monitoring. Upon hatching, the baby turtles would then be released into the ocean. This prevents poachers from stealing their eggs. Since the introduction of ecotourism efforts by BSTS, it was noted that they managed to rescue more than 800,000 hatchlings in Bali [22]. The ANVAYA Beach Resort Bali has also collaborated with the BSTS to release baby turtles on the beach in front of Sands Restaurant in hopes to support conservation and educate tourists on the importance of saving the turtles [22]. Comment by Esther: POLITICAL ECOLOGY

[image: Volunteer in Indonesia – Bali Sea Turtle Rescue]

Fig 2. Depicts the feeding and educating of sea turtles to tourists in Bali, Indonesia. (https://www.inspirock.com/indonesia/kuta/bali-sea-turtle-society-bsts-a9404176969)

[image: Turtle hatchlings inching their way toward the ocean on Kuta Beach in Bali, Indonesia, in early June. Some tourists got to help, and cheer them on.]

Fig 3. Tourist witnessing the release of turtle hatchlings into the ocean in Bali, Indonesia

(https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/07/world/asia/indonesia-bali-sea-turtles-eggs.html)

However, despite the conservation efforts of sea turtles in Bali, exploitation of ecotourism can be seen in some areas of Serangan, Bali. In Serangan, sea turtles are seen to be used as a tourist attraction to generate revenue instead of being protected. It is noted that local people prioritise their sales of products over the education of sea turtles to tourists. There has been even occurrence where staff members have stolen money from the donations by tourist [23]. There have also been several local attempts in Bali to solve the illegal sea turtle trade by establishing turtle hatchery programmes. There were 12 turtle hatcheries and attractions that were set up in 2018 that aimed to convey a strong conservation and education message to tourists on sea turtles. However, in reality, the money generated from hatcheries and attractions was again placed as priority compared to education and conservation efforts. This has resulted in the potential disease spreading from captive turtles to the wild population as well as a channel for illegal turtle eggs and meat to be sold more easily [9]. The prioritisation of income and revenue in Bali compared to the conservation value of sea turtles have reinforced the notion of how ecotourism is a form of “Neoliberalisation of Nature” where nature and natural areas are being commodified due to privatisation and hence these competition forces companies and shops to maximise profits rather than to promote the conservation of sea turtles in Bali. This has greatly shown that contrary to the aims of ecotourism, ecotourism has shown to contribute to environmental degradation and a breakdown of local and social cultures relations. Comment by Esther: Expand on this

Conclusion

This paper argues that ecotourism is a form of “Neoliberalisation of nature” that brings about many detrimental effects to the environment due to the element of privatisation and hence commodifying nature. The case study of sea turtles in Bali greatly highlights the effects of how commodifying of nature results in exploitation of profits instead of the genuine intention of sea turtle’s conservation and education which resulted in environmental degradation. While ecotourism seems like a promising marriage between conservation and development, we must be mindful of the underlying implications that it would bring in the long run.

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